DAB
Diaminobenzidine. Reagent used to detect / enhance bloody friction ridge detail.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
A chemical technique used to develop friction ridge detail in blood through oxidation. Can be
used on both porous and nonporous items. Found to be very hazardous.
DFIQI
Defense Fingerprint Image Quality Index. A fingerprint statistical modeling tool developed by the
USACIL pre-2015.
DFO
1,8-Diazafluoren-9-one. The suffix ’-one’ (pronounced own) refers to the chemical make up, as in
acetone or lactone.
Compound that reacts with amino acids to produce friction ridge detail with fluorescent properties
when exposed to excitation wavelengths of 352-591 nm.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
A ninhydrin analog used to develop latent prints on porous items. Optimal viewing is done with
an alternate light source (352-591nm) and orange or red goggles.
In 1989, C. A. Pounds, R. Griggs, and T. Monkolanssavaratana with the Department of
Chemistry, Belfast, Northern Ireland (per the FBI) introduced the reagent 1, 8-diazafluorenone
(DFO), which is commercially available and used in the United Kingdom. Unlike ninhydrin, DFO
gives a weakly colored initial print; the main feature of this reagent is its ability to give a
fluorescent print without secondary treatment. However, some investigators currently report
difficulties with uniform print development using DFO.
New Reagents for Development of Latent Fingerprints. NIJ 1995
http://www.ncjrs.org/txtfiles/finger.txt 06-19-2003
DMAC
See Dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde.
DPR
Dermatopathia Pigmentosa Reticularis. A genetic disorder passed down through the female side
of the family. DPR is caused by a gene that mutates during embryonic development resulting in a
lack of ridge detail and sweat glands. DPR is just one of several ectodermal dysplasia (ED)
syndromes.
Dactiloscopy or Dactiloscopia or Dactiloscopico
The fingerprint classification system developed by Juan Vucetich and used in most areas of
South America. Originally named the Icnofalangometric System and developed in 1891.
Dactylography
The study of fingerprints as a method of identification.
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=dactylography 02-27-03
Also the name of the book written in 1905 by Dr. Henry Faulds.
Dactyloscopic Point
A dactyloscopic point is a notable event that occurs in a regular flow of papillary ridges that is
subject of analysis. The event is a natural/biological disturbance to the normal parallel system of
the ridges ( e.g. a ridge stops or starts), and is significant.
http://www.interpol.int/Public/Forensic/fingerprints/WorkingParties/IEEGFI2/default.asp#4
Dactyloscopy
Comparison of fingerprints for identification.
From the Hutchinson Encyclopaedia.
Helicon Publishing LTD 2000.
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/dictionaries/difficultwords/data/d0004226.html 04-06-2003
Identification by comparison of fingerprints: also: classification of fingerprints.
Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. © 1997-2000.
http://www.fasthealth.com/dictionary/d/dactyloscopy.php 04-06-2003
Dalrymple, Brian E. (Sept. 23, 1947- present)
Mr. Dalrymple retired from the Ontario Provincial Police in 2000 and then became the president of
the consulting company Dalrymple and Associates. Among his many accomplishments was the
introduction of lasers (with colleagues Duff and Menzel) to detect inherent fluorescence in latent
fingerprints. In addition to publishing many papers on the forensic identification process, in 2011
he co-authored the book “Crime and Measurement: Methods in Forensic Investigation”. Mr.
Dalrymple has received numerous awards and honors for his significant contributions to the
science of forensic identification. These include the IAI’s Dondero Award in 1980, the Canadian
Identification Society’s Foster Award in 1982 and the Fingerprint Society’s Minshall Award in 1984
He initiated and co-wrote (with John Norman, OPP) the first Body Examination Protocol for
the Provincial Police, having completed approximately one hundred such examinations in his
career. He also created and deployed the first image enhancement system in Canada in 1991
and was the first Canadian to tender evidence in court using this technology. He continues to
share his knowledge as a contract instructor at the Ontario Police College in Canada and for Ron
Smith & Associates.
Daoud, Ouhnane
See Mayfield, Brandon.
Daubert Court Cases (not a complete list)
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993)
General Electric Company v. Joiner (1997)
Kumho Tire Company v. Carmichael (1999)
United States v. Byron Mitchell (1999)
United States v. Plaza (2002)
Commonwealth v. Terry L. Patterson (2005)
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals 1993
The Federal Court decision on the admissibility of scientific evidence and testimony in a court of
law. The Daubert decision stated on page 597, “….the Rules of Evidence—especially Rule
702—do assign to the trial judge the task of ensuring that an expert’s testimony both rests on a
reliable foundation and is relevant to the task at hand.”
From page 592, “Faced with a proffer of expert scientific testimony, then, the trial judge must
determine at the outset, pursuant to Rule 104(a), whether the expert is proposing to testify to (1)
scientific knowledge that (2) will assist the trier of fact to understand or determine a fact in issue.
This entails a preliminary assessment of whether the reasoning or methodology underlying the
testimony is scientifically valid and of whether that reasoning or methodology properly can be
applied to the facts in issue.”
“Many factors will bear on the inquiry, and we do not presume to set out a definitive checklist or
test. But some general observations are appropriate.” The observations they mentioned
included, “whether the theory or technique in question can be (and has been) tested, whether it
has been subjected to peer review and publication, its known or potential error rate and the
existence and maintenance of standards controlling its operation, and whether it has attracted
widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community.” The acronym GTKPR, which
stands for Gatekeeper, was created by Glenn Langenburg in 2001 to help remember these
factors. The theories or technique should have:
General Acceptance
Tested (has been)
Known Standards
Peer Review and Publication
Rate of Error (known or potential)
Daubert is considered by some to be a lower criteria than Frye designed to let new scientific
evidence into court prior to it being generally accepted. Daubert stated, “General acceptance is
not a necessary precondition to the admissibility of scientific evidence under the Federal Rules of
Evidence…”.
In the Daubert case, Merrell Dow was sued by a mother whose baby had a congenital disorder.
That mother had taken Bendectin, an anti-nausea drug made by Merrell Dow, during her
pregnancy. Merrell Dow moved for summary judgment, claiming Bendectin had not caused the
child’s disorder. In the affidavit authored by Dr. Steven H. Lamm, the author testified that he had
reviewed multiple published human studies and concluded the use of Bendectin during the first
trimester of pregnancy was not supposed to be a health risk. In response to Merrell Dow’s
affidavit, the plaintiff presented eight affidavits solely based on animal testings, claiming the
existence of a link between Bendectin and animal birth defects.
The court granted summary judgment for Merrell Dow and dismissed the case, finding Daubert’s
experts relied on evidence “not sufficiently established to have general acceptance in the field to
which it belongs.” The Court held that expert opinion which is not based on data from the field of
epidemiology concerning Bendectin is not admissible to raise an issue regarding causation (in
law) to the jury. In addition, the Court also ruled that although Daubert’s experts recalculated data
obtained from previously published epidemiologic studies, their findings were not considered
admissible because they were neither published nor subjected to peer review. The plaintiffs
appealed the decision, and, in due course, the case reached the U. S. Supreme Court
The Supreme Court did not apply their new Daubert standard to the case, but rather reversed the
decision and remanded the case to the Ninth Circuit court. On remand, the Ninth Circuit applied
the Daubert standard and again granted summary judgment for the defendant.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_Standard 05-27-2006
See R. v. Mohan (1994) for the Canadian equivalent to this decision.
Daubert Trilogy
The 3 main Daubert cases that set the requirements for admissibility of expert testimony.
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993)
General Electric Company v. Joiner (1997)
Kumho Tire Company v. Carmichael (1999)
Decision
A personal choice based on preference (e.g., a person decides to have pizza for dinner).
Associating one item with another is better referred to as a conclusion (e.g., a person concludes
that a specific coin is a penny; not decides a specific coin is a penny).
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning from the general to the particular
WordNet ® 1.6, © 1997 Princeton University
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=deductive%20reasoning 02-27-03
DeForest, Henry Pelouse (AKA Deforrest) (1864-1948)
Pioneered the first systematic use of fingerprints in the United States by the New York Civil
Service Commission.
http://www.forensicdna.com/Timeline020702.pdf 03-08-2003
Henry DeForest was the Chief Medical Examiner for New York City. In 1902, he was asked to
recommend a method of identification. This was intended as a means of stopping potential
employees from hiring others to take the civil service exams for them. The first person was
fingerprinted on Dec. 19, 1902. His recommendation of using fingerprints was the first use of
fingerprints by a United States government agency and considered the second use of fingerprints
in the United States (after Gilbert Thompson). DeForest also invented the dactyloscope,
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/RMM03214.html.
Degloving
The unintentional separation of the skin from the hands or feet, usually as a whole which
resembles a glove. This can be the result of a deceased’s body prolonged immersion in water,
however such loss of skin may also occur in severe forms of epidermolysis bullosa, a group of
inherited mechano-bullous disorders.
Professor Julian Verbov 2011
Delta
Classification term for triradius.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
A term introduced by Galton to indicate the small area where 3 folds meet.
Personal Identification, Wentworth and Wilder 1918 pg. 117.
The point on a friction ridge at or nearest to the point of divergence of two type lines, and located
at or directly in front of the point of divergence. Also known as a tri-radius.
SWGFAST, Standard Terminology of Friction Ridge Examination 3-23-11 ver. 3.0
Deposition Pressure
The amount of downward pressure during the deposition of a print.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
Dermabrasion
A technique using chemicals, wire brush, surgery or lasers which can case either temporary or
permanent loss of ridge detail.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
Dermal
Relative to the skin or dermis.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
Dermal Papillae
Peg-like formations on the surface of the dermis.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
Aka dermal pegs or papillary pegs.
Dermal Papillae increases the surface area between the dermis and the epidermis, allowing for a
stronger bond. As a person ages the dermal papillae flattens, which creates less of a bond
resulting in loose skin and creating wrinkles and creases. The flattening of the dermal papillae
also creates less of a difference in height between the ridges and the furrows.
Dermal Pegs
See Dermal Papillae.
Dermal Ridges
The ridges in the papillary layer of the dermis that connect to the bottom ridges of the epidermis.
Also called papillary ridges.
Dermatoglyphics
Study of the surface markings of the skin; friction ridges.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
Cummins and Midlo were professors of Microscopic Anatomy at Tulane University in the United
States, and it was they who in fact coined the term ‘dermatoglyphics’ in 1926 (derma = skin, glyph
= carving).
http://users.breathemail.net/chiro/chiro/dermatoglyphics.htm 04-26-03
Usually associated with the study of fingerprint patterns and their association with heredity, race,
and medical conditions.
Dermatopathia Pigmentosa Reticularis (DPR)
A genetic disorder passed down through the female side of the family. DPR is caused by a gene
that mutates during embryonic development resulting in a lack of ridge detail and sweat glands.
DPR is just one of several ectodermal dysplasia (ED) syndromes.
A rare genetic ectodermal dysplasia in which ridge dysplasia is seen. Naegeli – Franceschetti –
Jadassohn Syndrome and Hypohidrotic Ectodermal Dysplasia are just two other ectodermal
dysplasias where dermatoglyphic aberrations are seen.
Professor Julian Verbov 04-19-08
Dermis
The layer of skin beneath the epidermis.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
The layer of skin under the epidermis; the true skin.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
The layer of skin beneath the epidermis consisting of two layers, the papillary layer and the
reticular layer. The dermis provides nutrients to the epidermis.
Desmosomes
Desmosomes are responsible for lateral cell-to-cell adhesion. The cells in the epidermis are
connected with desmosomes. As the cells are pushed to the surface by newly forming cells they
eventually break apart and are sloughed off. This is called desquamation.
Desquamation
The separation or shedding of the cuticle or epidermis in the form of flakes or scales; exfoliation,
as of bones.
Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary, © 1996, 1998 MICRA, Inc.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=desquamation
Details
Refers to Level 1 Details, Level 2 Details, and Level 3 Details.
Determination
To decide or settle authoritatively or conclusively.
Webster’s II New Riverside Dictionary, Office Edition. Houghton Mifflin Publishing Co. Copyright
1984, Berkley Addition.
The settling of a question or case by an authoritative decision or pronouncement, especially by a
judicial body: The choice of a foster home was left to the determination of the court.
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=determination
Develop
To promote a change in physical attributes, making an item more pronounced or prominent. To
enhance.
With regard to latent development, examiners change the physical attributes making the original
latent more usable.
With regard to fetal friction skin development (or formation), development may insinuate initial
creation.
Development Medium
The substance used to develop friction ridge prints, i.e., powder
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
Deviation
Deviation
1. A change in friction ridge path.
2. An alteration or departure from a documented policy or standard procedure.
SWGFAST, Standard Terminology of Friction Ridge Examination 3-23-11 ver. 3.0
Dichloromethane
Solvent used in the preparation of liquid Iodine reagent. See Methylene chloride.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
Diff-Lift™
Specialized lifting tape made for use on textured objects. This product was developed by, and is
available through, the Lynn Peavey Company.
Difference of Opinion
The occurrence of differing opinions based on the use of different criteria for conclusions; the
criteria used may include subjective aspects when ground truth cannot be established. A
difference of opinion may be understandable when due to subjectivity, e.g. tolerance levels. A
difference of opinion is considered a conflict when the opposing criteria is judged to be
unreasonable.
Differential Growth
Develops at random without plan.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
See Theory of Differential Growth.
Differentiation
Becoming different, i.e., the cells of an embryo differentiate into organs and parts as it grows;
specific friction ridge patterns become unique.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
The process by which cells or tissues undergo a change toward a more specialized form or
function, especially during embryonic development.
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=differentiation 03-08-2003
Difficulty
A measure of personal ability, as opposed to the measure of task complexity.
Digit
A toe or finger.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
Dillinger, John (1903-1934)
Dillinger is noted for trying to elude law enforcement by mutilating his fingerprints. He obliterated
the cores and the deltas in all ten of his fingers.
Dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde
Better known as DMAC. A chemical used to develop friction ridge detail on thermal paper. This
alternative to using DFO or ninhydrin does not turn thermal paper black. Refrigeration is needed
to store the treated transfer sheets that are used in this procedure. The developed friction ridge
detail has fluorescent properties when exposed to wavelengths of 400-500 nm.
Discrepancy
See One Discrepancy Rule.
The presence of friction ridge detail in one impression that does not exist in the corresponding
area of another impression (compare with dissimilarity).
SWGFAST, Standard Terminology of Friction Ridge Examination 3-23-11 ver. 3.0
Dissimilar
The appearance of inconsistency between two friction ridge impressions that, based upon further
analysis, could be attributed either to distortion or difference.
Dissimilarity
A difference in appearance between two friction ridge impressions (compare with discrepancy).
SWGFAST, Standard Terminology of Friction Ridge Examination 3-23-11 ver. 3.0
Dissociated Ridges
A physical condition of friction ridges resulting in ridges that are fragmented or broken.
An area of ridge units that did not form into friction ridges.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
1. Disrupted, rather than continuous, friction ridges.
2. An area of friction ridge units that did not form into friction ridges, generally due to a genetic abnormality.
SWGFAST, Standard Terminology of Friction Ridge Examination 3-23-11 ver. 3.0
Distal
Farthest away from the center or point of attachment.The direction away from the body.
SWGFAST, Glossary 07-28-2009 ver. 2.0
Away from the center or point of origin.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
Distal Inter-Phalangeal Flexion Crease
The top crease in a finger.
Distal Transverse Crease
The crease above the proximal transverse crease.
Distortion
Variances in the 2-dimensional reproductions of the 3-dimensional friction skin source caused by
multiple deposition factors such as pressure, movement, force, or the contact surface.
Variances in the reproduction of friction skin caused by factors such as pressure, movement,
force, and contact surface.
SWGFAST, Standard Terminology of Friction Ridge Examination 3-23-11 ver. 3.0
Distortion Clues (not a complete list)
Fault line (shadowing where two impressions might meet)
Notch (uneven edges when 2 prints might meet)
Misaligned ridges
Disturbance in ridge flow
Multiple vvv’s or multiple bifurcations (may be a sign of twisting)
Overlapping ridges or superimposed ridges (may be a sign of a double tap)
Thick ridges (sign of pressure)
Divergence
The separation of two friction ridges that have been running parallel or nearly parallel.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
Dizygotic
Derived from two separately fertilized eggs. Used to describe fraternal twins and distinguish them
from identical twins (monozygotic).
Doctrine
Belief, what is taught as a group’s belief.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press
Documentation (amount needed)
Providing documentation is a way to demonstrate correct application of a process. There are
generally two forms of documentation. Contemporaneous documentation is documenting the
order of physical tasks that were performed since the order tasks were performed would not be
able to be determined without documentation. Documentation of the justification behind a
conclusion can be useful for analytical assessments when the basis for a conclusion cannot
easily be performed at a later date, such as when information is not clearly apparent to other
experts in the field (complex examinations), or when unusual occurrences are present. The
amount of documentation depends on the complexity of the data and/or the situation.
Documentation of the analytical process is not required for every comparison; however, it is a
scientific protocol to provide documentation if anyone should ask for it.
Dogma
Statements from an authoritative source that are accepted as being true without having proof.
Dondero, John A. (Nov. 11, 1900-Aug. 1957)
John A. Dondero was a pioneer in the science of investigation and identification. After graduating
from college with a degree in Chemical Engineering, John Dondero became interested in this
newly developing field. During his life he created many valuable inventions that aided forensic
practitioners. In the early 1930’s, after seeing his daughter’s footprints taken at birth, he
developed the first clean and inkless system for taking fingerprints. He also developed the first
fingerprint ink and the first commercially available fingerprint powder. At the time most powders
were prepared and ground by hand. Around this time he established the Faurot Forensic
Company, named after the famous New York Police Department detective. This company is now
owned by Sirchie Finger Print Laboratories. One main historical event that Mr. Dondero was
involved with was the famous 1944 Hartford Circus fire. He was instrumental in identifying 168
bodies from this tragedy. After World War II, at the request of New York City and Nassau County
Police, Mr. Dondero founded a school where he taught classification, latent print development,
crime scene investigation and taking and comparing fingerprints. The contributions John
Dondero gave to the fingerprint community will forever be remembered. In 1958, the IAI
recognized these significant contributions by adopting the IAI John A. Dondero Memorial Award.
It is the highest honor an IAI member can receive. It is awarded for the most significant
contribution in the area of identification and allied sciences during the calendar year immediately
preceding each annual conference. Its first recipient was J. Edgar Hoover.
The IAI 89th Annual Conference, St. Louis, Missouri, Aug. 27th, 2004, by Marilyn Picard.
Dorsal
The backside of the hand, the nonpalmar side.
Dot
An isolated friction ridge unit whose length approximates its width in size.
SWGFAST, Standard Terminology of Friction Ridge Examination 3-23-11 ver. 3.0
Double Blind Testing
Double Blind Testing is a valid scientific method of testing a hypothesis. This method implements
Blind Testing with the additional element of concealing the fact that the practitioner is part of a
test (this information may also be concealed from the person administering the test). The intent
behind double blind testing is to eliminate that people may arrive at different conclusions when
they know they are being tested. Double Blind Testing tests the reliability of a conclusion (the
reproducibility) but it does not test the validity of the conclusion (how the conclusion was arrived
at), therefore Double Blind Testing is not considered a valid form of peer review. Restricting
information may be beneficial in testing for bias but it may severely impact a conclusion if relevant
information is being limited.
Double Blind Verification
A valid scientific method of testing the reliability (reproducibility) of a conclusion by giving the
same information to others to independently analyze without being influence by knowing the
conclusion of others and not knowing that they are involved in a test. The intent behind double
blind verification is to eliminate that people may arrive at different conclusions when they know
they are being tested.
Double Impression
A double impression can refer to either overlapping prints (overlays) or double taps.
Double Tap
A subtle double impression where additional friction ridges will coincide or be close to running in
the same direction as the existing ridge flow. Double taps are made in close time proximity to the
first friction ridge impression. Double Taps are made by the same finger.
Dragon’s Blood Powder
Dragon’s Blood fingerprint powder is made from the resin of the rattan palm. The advantage of
using this powder is that you can visualize latent prints on light, dark, and multi-colored surfaces.
Dror, Dr. Itiel
Itiel Dror is a cognitive neuroscientist who got his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1994. He
specializes in visual cognition, human performance, expertise and decision making. Dr. Dror’s
interest and experience is in taking scientific knowledge about the human brain and mind, and
translating them into practical ways to improve and affect human performance and decision
making in the workplace. His practical experience is in cognitive aspects involved in fingerprint
identification and his research has been funded by a variety of bodies, such as the FBI, NIST,
and NIJ. The research and consultancy does not only focus on decision making and perceptual
issues, but also pertains to selection and training of fingerprint experts, as well as the use and
integration of technology.
Dr. Dror is affiliated with the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London
(UCL), and researches and consults through Cognitive Consultants International (CCI). His
applied research and consultancy has taken place in a variety of countries and has included
governmental bodies (such as the UK Passport and Identity Services; the US Air Force; and
Police Forces in a variety of countries). Dr. Dror has published more than 75 peer reviewed
articles, including a number of leading articles in the forensic science domain. He is an associate
editor of the journal Pragmatics and Cognition, and is a member of the NIJ/NIST expert working
group in human factors in latent fingerprint examination.
Dry-Benching
Reporting results from tests that were not actually done. Also referred to as Dry-Labbing.
Dry-Labbing
Reporting results from tests that were not actually done. Also referred to as Dry-Benching.
Duct
A tube or canal that delivers secretions or excretions.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
Duplicate Lift
Taking subsequent lifts from the same area of the same surface with the intention of improving
the quality and contrast of the latent print being lifted.
Dysplasia
A medical condition which occurs during the formation of friction ridges resulting in dissociated
ridges.
Ridge units that did not form complete friction ridges due to a genetic cause.
SWGFAST, Glossary – Consolidated 09-09-03 ver. 1.0
Ridge units that did not form friction ridges due to a genetic cause.
Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis, David R. Ashbaugh 1999 CRC Press